范文為教學(xué)中作為模范的文章，也常常用來指寫作的模板。常常用于文秘寫作的參考，也可以作為演講材料編寫前的參考。相信許多人會覺得范文很難寫？以下是我為大家搜集的優(yōu)質(zhì)范文，僅供參考，一起來看看吧
summary200字篇一
《summary of bilateral wto agreement》
february 2,
agriculture
the agreement would eliminate barriers and increase access for . exports across a broad range of commodities. commitments include:
significant cuts in tariffs that will be completed by january . overall average for agricultural products will be percent and for . priority products 14 percent (down from 31 percent).
establishment of a tariff-rate quota system for imports of bulk commodities, ., wheat, corn, cotton, barley, and rice, that provides a share of the trq for private traders. specific rules on how the trq will operate and increased transparency in the process will help ensure that imports occur. significant and growing quota quantities subject to tariffs that average between 1-3 percent.
immediate elimination of the tariff-rate quota system for barley, peanut oil, sunflower-seed oil, cottonseed oil, and a phase-out for soybean oil.
the right to import and distribute products without going through a state-trading enterprise or middleman.
elimination of export subsidies on agricultural products.
china has also agreed to the elimination of sps barriers that are not based on scientific evidence.
industrial products
china would lower tariffs and eliminate broad systemic barriers to . exports, such as limits on who can import goods and distribute them in china, as well as barriers such as quotas and licenses on . products.
tariffs
tariffs cut from an average of percent to an average of percent overall and percent on . priority products.
china will participate in the information technology agreement (ita) and eliminate all tariffs on products such as computers, telecommunications equipment, semiconductors, computer equipment, and other high-technology products.
in the auto sector, china will cut tariffs from the current 80-100% level to 25% by mid-, with the largest cuts in the first years after accession.
auto parts tariffs will be cut to an average of 10% by mid-2006.
in the wood and paper sectors, tariffs will drop from present levels of 12?18% on wood and 15-25% on paper down to levels generally between 5% and .
china will also be implementing the vast majority of the chemical harmonization initiative. under that initiative, tariffs will be at 0, and percent for products in each category.
elimination of quotas and licenses
wto rules bar quotas and other quantitative restrictions. china has agreed to eliminate these restrictions with phase-ins limited to five years.
quotas: china will eliminate existing quotas upon accession for the top . priorities (. optic fiber cable). it will phase out remaining quotas, generally by , but no later than .
quotas will grow from current trade levels at a 15% annual rate in order to ensure that market access increases progressively.
auto quotas will be phased out by 2005. in the interim, the base-level quota will be $6 billion (the level prior to chinas auto industrial policy), and this will grow by 15% annually until elimination.
right to import and distribute
trading rights and distribution are among the top concerns for . manufacturers and agricultural exporters. at present, china severely restricts trading rights (the right to import and export) and the ability to own and operate distribution networks. under the agreement, trading rights and distribution services will be progressively phased in over three years. china will also open up sectors related to distribution services, such as repair and maintenance, warehousing, trucking and air courier services.
services
china has made commitments to phase out most restrictions in a broad range of services sectors, including distribution, banking, insurance, telecommunications, professional services such as accountancy and legal consulting, business and computer related services, motion pictures and video and sound recording services. china will also participate in the basic telecommunications and financial services agreements.
grandfathering
china will grandfather the existing level of market access already in effect at the time of chinas accession for . services companies currently operating in china. this will protect existing american businesses operating under contractual or shareholder agreements or a license from new restrictions as china phases in their commitments.
distribution and related services
china generally prohibits foreign firms from distributing products other than those they make in china, or from controlling their own distribution networks. under the agreement, china has agreed to liberalize wholesaling and retailing services for most products, including imported goods, throughout china in three years. in addition, china has agreed to open up the logistical chain of related services such as maintenance and repair, storage and warehousing , packaging, advertising, trucking and air express services, marketing, and customer support in three to four years.
telecommunications
china now prohibits foreign investment in telecommunications services. for the first time, china has agreed to permit direct investment in telecommunications businesses. china will also participate in the basic telecommunications agreement. specific commitments include:
regulatory principles ?- china has agreed to implement the pro?competitive regulatory principles embodied in the basic telecommunications agreement (including interconnection rights and independent regulatory authority) and will allow foreign suppliers to use any technology they choose to provide telecommunications services.
china will gradually phase out all geographic restrictions for paging and value-added services in two years, mobile voice and data services in five years, and domestic and international services in six years.
china will permit 50 percent foreign equity share for value-added and paging services two years after accession, 49 percent foreign equity share for mobile voice and data services five years after accession, and for domestic and international services six years after accession.
insurance
currently, only two . insurers have access to chinas market. under the agreement:
china agreed to award licenses solely on the basis of prudential criteria, with no economic-needs test or quantitative limits on the number of licenses issued.
china will progressively eliminate all geographic limitations within 3 years. internal branching will be permitted consistent with the elimination of these restrictions.
china will expand the scope of activities for foreign insurers to include group, health and pension lines of insurance, phased in over 5 years. foreign property and casualty firms will be able to insure large-scale commercial risks nationwide immediately upon accession.
china agreed to allow 50 percent ownership for life insurance. life insurers may also choose their own joint venture partners. for non-life, china will allow branching or 51 percent ownership on accession and wholly owned subsidiaries in 2 years. reinsurance is completely open upon accession (100 percent, no restrictions).
banking
currently foreign banks are not permitted to do local currency business with chinese clients (a few can engage in local currency business with their foreign clients). china imposes severe geographic restrictions on the establishment of foreign banks.
china has committed to full market access in five years for . banks.
foreign banks will be able to conduct local currency business with chinese enterprises starting 2 years after accession.
foreign banks will be able to conduct local currency business with chinese inspaniduals from 5 years after accession.
foreign banks will have the same rights (national treatment) as chinese banks within designated geographic areas.
both geographic and customer restrictions will be removed in five years.
non-bank financial companies can offer auto financing upon accession.
securities
china will permit minority foreign-owned joint ventures to engage in fund management on the same terms as chinese firms. by three years after accession, foreign ownership of these joint ventures will be allowed to rise to 49 percent. as the scope of business expands for chinese firms, foreign joint venture securities companies will enjoy the same expansion in scope of business. in addition, 33 percent foreign?owned joint ventures will be allowed to underwrite domestic equity issues and underwrite and trade in international equity and all corporate and government debt issues.
professional services
china has made
1. presents the original text’s title.
2. presents the author’s full name.
3. presents the author’s purpose for writing.
4. identifies the thesis statement.
5. identifies all of the text’s main ideas.
6. selects the key information in the text.
7. does not include details or other information not included in the text.
8. is mostly written in your own words.
9. is clear and easy to follow.
summary范文欣賞：
in the essay “preparing for your first job interview,” author jim sweeny gives advice to recent graduates who are interviewing for their first job. specifically, he says that there are things they can do to prepare for the interview. first, sweeny tells students that they should make a list of questions they might be asked. these questions are usually about how a person’s school experience relates to the job he or she is applying for. then sweeny says that students should prepare answers to the questions and practice responding to them, and he explains a way to do this. in conclusion, he tells students not to get discouraged by the interviewing process.
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summary200字篇八(1) 仔細(xì)讀摘要的第一句話，找出它在原文中的出處，通常是和原文某段話的第一句相對應(yīng)。如果題目要求中已經(jīng)指出了摘要的出處，則此步可以略去不做。
(2) 注意空格前后的詞，到原文中去找這些詞的對應(yīng)詞。
對應(yīng)詞的特點(diǎn)如下：
a. 原詞
b. 詞性變化;如空格前的詞為threatening, 是形容詞，原文中的詞為threat, 是名詞。
c. 語態(tài)變化;一個是主動語態(tài)，一個是被動語態(tài)。
d. 同義詞;如空格前的詞為throw away，原文中的詞為discard(丟棄，拋棄，遺棄)，它們是同義詞。
(3) 仔細(xì)閱讀對應(yīng)所在的句子，確定正確答案。
(4) 注意語法，所填答案必須符合語法規(guī)定。
(5) 注意順序性，即題目的順序和原文的順序基本一致。
notice
1. 注意題目要求中是否有字?jǐn)?shù)限制。
若要求從原文選詞或自己寫詞，會有字?jǐn)?shù)要求，如use one or two words等，答案必須滿足這個要求。
2. 若從原文選詞，只能選原文中連續(xù)的幾個詞，不能改變它們的順序。
如原文為virgin fibre, 發(fā)生答案不可能是fibre virgin。原文為 advances in the technology，答案不可能是technology advances。
3. 若要求從原文選詞，越是生詞，越可能是答案。
下列比較生僻的詞如sustainable(可持續(xù)的)、biodegradable(可生物降解的)、contaminants(廢物，雜物)、nostrils(鼻孔)都是一些題目的答案。
4. 從選項(xiàng)中選詞，要注意看題目要求是寫答案本身，還是寫選項(xiàng)前的代表字母。
選項(xiàng)前有代表字母的，肯定是要求答代表字母。最近的考試中，選項(xiàng)前大部分都有代表字母。
5. 從選項(xiàng)中選詞，答案與原文的六大對應(yīng)關(guān)系。
(1) 原文原詞：與原文完全相同的詞或短語。
(2) 詞性變化：原文為necessary，是形容詞，選項(xiàng)為necessity，是名詞。
(3) 語態(tài)變化：原文為governments have encouraged waste paper collection and sorting schemes，是主動語態(tài)。摘要中的句子為people have also been encouraged by government to collect their waste on a regular basis，是被動語態(tài)。
(4) 圖表：如果原文中有圖表，一般會有一題答案來自圖表。
(5) 同義詞：原文為tight，選項(xiàng)為restricted，是同義詞。
(6) 歸納：有時文中沒有直接提及，須從幾句話中歸納出答案。一般比較難，目前考試中，至少有一個空格是歸納出來的。
6.從選項(xiàng)中選詞，如果時間不夠，可以直接從選項(xiàng)中選擇，不看原文。
這時，要特別注意語法。這樣做的準(zhǔn)確性50%左右(視題目的難易及考生的水平而定)。所以除非時間不夠，否則不建議大家這樣做。
7. 如果要求自己寫詞，答案絕大部分是原文原詞，少部分是對原文原詞做的形式上的修改。
要求自己寫詞的機(jī)率很小，遇到過一次。在這一次的5個題目中有4個答案是原文原詞，剩下一個，原文原詞是de-inked，答案根據(jù)語法的需要改為de-ink。
雅思閱讀考前必看文章之教育心理類
雅思閱讀：coarse work
british universities, it appears, are considering abandoning a 200-year old system of degree classification in favour of the american gpa model. at present, students are bunched into grade clusters. the top 10-20% receive a “1st”, the majority receive a “” or “two-one” and the stragglers receive either a “two-two” or a “3rd”. the latter group can be very small (5%) at the elite universities but is larger nationally.
the main reasoning for this is that it is hard for employers to distinguish between graduates if everyone has a grade. but it is possible for employers to ask for a full transcript of inspanidual grades, though this is not nearly as common in britain as you might expect. the stronger point (which you might have already picked up on) is that the existing system can be difficult to interpret internationally. adopting the gpa system would be helpful to undergraduates wishing to study or work abroad.
i think this might be missing a trick. my experience of the 1st/ system is that it has a very strong effect on students work effort. for weaker students, either those of lower natural ability or the more workshy, fear of the notorious “desmond” (cockney rhyming slang after the eponymous archbishop) is the ultimate motivator. many attractive careers simply advertise the minimum requirement of a , and therefore getting the lower grade can be quite a handicap in the job market.
for stronger students, the aspiration of a first, the only true distinguisher in the system, is also a strong incentive. the risk is that working quite hard could leave you with only a high , largely indistinguishable from all other s. the crudeness of the grading system drags everyone up.
an interesting paper by pradeep dubey and john geanakoplos of the cowles foundation at yale univeristy makes the same point. they write:
suppose that the professor judges each students performance exactly, though the performance itself may depend on random factors, in addition to ability and effort. suppose also that the professor is motivated solely by a desire to induce his students to work hard. third and most importantly, suppose that the students care about their relative rank in the class, that is, about their status. we show that, in this scenario, coarse grading often motivates the student to work harder.
one might think that finer hierarchies generate more incentives. but this is often not the case. coarse hierarchies can paradoxically create more competition for status, and thus better incentives for work.
they give a simple example. suppose there are two students, brainy and dumbo, with disparate abilities. brainy achieves a uniformly higher score even when he shirks and dumbo works. suppose, for example, that dumbo scores between 40 and 50 if he shirks, and between 50 and 60 if he works, while brainy scores between 70 and 80 if he shirks and 80 and 90 if he works. with perfectly fine grading, brainy will come ahead of dumbo regardless of their effort levels. but since they only care about rank, both will shirk.
but, by assigning a grade a to scores above 85, b to scores between 50 and 85, and c to below 50, the professor can inspire dumbo to work, for then dumbo stands a chance to acquire the same status b as brainy, even when brainy is working. this in turn generates the competition which in fact spurs brainy to work, so that with luck he can distinguish himself from dumbo. he doesnt want to be mislabelled. with finer grading everyone gets their own label so this effect disappears.
the corollary to this in my example is that if the brainy student knows that even when slacking off he will still do measurably better than most students he may decide that he can still get a very good job with 70 to 80. there may be students who score 80 to 90 with superior credentials but academic performance is only part of the hiring criteria. if he can signal himself as a brainy student he might think this is enough.
however, critical to all this is that all exams are taken together, as they are at oxford or cambridge universities, usually at the end of the degree in a consecutive-day marathon. the trend in other british universities has been to examine various courses throughout the degree. the result is that those in the middle of the ability range can work very hard at the beginning, bank a and then slack off in the remaining years. it is partly for this reason that those universities pushing hardest for the changes have exams split across years. oxford and cambridge are less keen.
雅思閱讀考前必看文章之教育心理類
雅思閱讀：game lessons
it sounds like a cop-out, but the future of schooling may lie with video games
since the beginning of mass education, schools have relied on what is known in educational circles as “chalk and talk”. chalk and blackboard may sometimes be replaced by felt-tip pens and a whiteboard, and electronics in the form of computers may sometimes be bolted on, but the idea of a pedagogue leading his pupils more or less willingly through a day based on periods of study of recognisable academic disciplines, such as mathematics, physics, history, geography and whatever the local language happens to be, has rarely been abandoned.
abandoning it, though, is what katie salen hopes to do. ms salen is a games designer and a professor of design and technology at parsons the new school for design, in new york. she is also the moving spirit behind quest to learn, a new, taxpayer-funded school in that city which is about to open its doors to pupils who will never suffer the indignity of snoring through double french but will, rather, spend their entire days playing games.
quest to learn draws on many roots. one is the research of james gee of the university of wisconsin. in dr gee published a book called “what video games have to teach us about learning and literacy”, in which he argued that playing such games helps people develop a sense of identity, grasp meaning, learn to follow commands and even pick role models. another is the macarthur foundations digital media and learning initiative, which began in and which has acted as a test-bed for some of ms salens ideas about educational-games design. a third is the success of the bank street school for children, an independent primary school in new york that practises what its parent, the nearby bank street college of education, preaches in the way of interdisciplinary teaching methods and the encouragement of pupil collaboration.
ms salen is, in effect, seeking to mechanise bank streets methods by transferring much of the pedagogic effort from the teachers themselves (who will now act in an advisory role) to a set of video games that she and her colleagues have devised. instead of chalk and talk, children learn by doing—and do so in a way that tears up the usual subject-based curriculum altogether.
periods of maths, science, history and so on are no more. quest to learns school day will, rather, be spanided into four 90-minute blocks devoted to the study of “domains”. such domains include codeworlds (a combination of mathematics and english), being, space and place (english and social studies), the way things work (maths and science) and sports for the mind (game design and digital literacy). each domain concludes with a two-week examination called a “boss level”—a common phrase in video-game parlance.
freeing the helots
in one of the units of being, space and place, for example, pupils take on the role of an ancient spartan who has to assess athenian strengths and recommend a course of action. in doing so, they learn bits of history, geography and public policy. in a unit of the way things work, they try to inhabit the minds of scientists devising a pathway for a beam of light to reach a target. this lesson touches on maths, optics—and, the organisers hope, creative thinking and teamwork. another way-things-work unit asks pupils to imagine they are pyramid-builders in ancient egypt. this means learning about maths and engineering, and something about the countrys religion and geography.
whether things will work the way ms salen hopes will, itself, take a few years to find out. the school plans to admit pupils at the age of 12 and keep them until they are 18, so the first batch will not leave until . if it fails, traditionalists will no doubt scoff at the idea that teaching through playing games was ever seriously entertained. if it succeeds, though, it will provide a model that could make chalk and talk redundant. and it will have shown that in education, as in other fields of activity, it is not enough just to apply new technologies to existing processes—for maximum effect you have to apply them in new and imaginative ways.
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